# Beginner's Guide to GAM with R # Alain Zuur # www.highstat.com # This program is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, # but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of # MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the # GNU General Public License for more details. ############################################################## #Load the data BL <- read.table(file = "HegerPierce.txt", header = TRUE) #Inspect the results str(BL) names(BL) ############################################################## #Housekeeping: load packages and support functions library(lattice) library(mgcv) ############################################################## #Section 3.3 Linear regression #Figure 3.2 plot(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$Sources, xlab = "Depth", ylab ="Sources", cex.lab = 1.5) #Scale Depth BL$DepthOriginal <- BL$Depth BL$Depth <- BL$Depth/max(BL$Depth) #Figure 3.3 plot(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$Sources, xlab = "Scaled depth", ylab ="Sources", cex.lab = 1.5, cex = 0.7, pch = 16, col = grey(0.5)) M1 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth, data = BL) abline(M1, lwd = 5) ############################################################## #Section 3.3 Polynimial regression M2 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + I(Depth^3), data = BL) #Figure 3.4 MD <- data.frame(Depth = seq(0.1, 1, length = 100)) plot(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$Sources, xlab = "Scaled depth", ylab ="Sources", cex.lab = 1.5, cex = 0.7, pch = 16, col = grey(0.5)) P2 <- predict(M2, newdata = MD) lines(x = MD$Depth, y = P2, lwd = 5) ############################################################## #Section 3.4 Linear spline regression rhs <- function(x, TH) ifelse(x >= TH, x-TH,0) M3 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + rhs(Depth, 0.2), data = BL) P3 <- predict(M3, newdata = MD) #Figure 3.6 plot(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$Sources, xlab = "Scaled depth", ylab ="Sources", cex.lab = 1.5, cex = 0.7, pch = 16, col = grey(0.5)) lines(x = MD$Depth, y = P3, lwd = 5) #See matrix with covariates model.matrix(M3) #Compare models AIC(M1, M2, M3) #Use quantiles to decide on Knots probs <- seq(0, 1, length = 11) QD <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs) QD #Fit the model M4 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + rhs(Depth, 0.159) + rhs(Depth, 0.220) + rhs(Depth, 0.281) + rhs(Depth, 0.344) + rhs(Depth, 0.410) + rhs(Depth, 0.490) + rhs(Depth, 0.567) + rhs(Depth, 0.664) + rhs(Depth, 0.787), data = BL) model.matrix(M4) #Figure 3.7 P4 <- predict(M4, newdata = MD) plot(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$Sources, xlab = "Scaled depth", ylab = "Sources", cex.lab = 1.5, cex = 0.7, pch = 16, col = grey(0.5)) lines(x = MD$Depth, y = P4, lwd = 5) ########################################################## #Section 3.5 Quadratic spline regression rhs2 <- function(x, TH) ifelse(x >= TH, (x-TH)^2,0) M5 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, 0.159) + rhs2(Depth, 0.220) + rhs2(Depth, 0.281) + rhs2(Depth, 0.344) + rhs2(Depth, 0.410) + rhs2(Depth, 0.490) + rhs2(Depth, 0.567) + rhs2(Depth, 0.664) + rhs2(Depth, 0.787), data = BL) #Figure 3.8 P5 <- predict(M5, newdata = MD) plot(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$Sources, xlab = "Scaled depth", ylab ="Sources", cex.lab = 1.5, cex = 0.7, pch = 16, col = grey(0.5)) lines(x = MD$Depth, y = P5, lwd = 5) #Numerical output print(summary(M5), signif.stars = FALSE, digits =2) ##################################################### #Section 3.6: Cubic regression splines #Figure 3.9 plot(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$Sources, xlab = "Scaled depth", ylab ="Sources", cex.lab = 1.5, cex = 0.7, pch = 16, col = grey(0.5)) for (i in 1:11){ abline(v = QD[i], lty = 2) } for (i in 2:11){ M2 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + I(Depth^3), data = BL, subset = BL$Depth > QD[i-1] & BL$Depth <= QD[i]) MD <- data.frame(Depth = seq(QD[i-1], QD[i], length =100)) P2 <- predict(M2, newdata = MD) lines(MD$Depth, P2, lwd = 5) } #End of Figure 3.9 #Fit a smoothing spline rk<-function(x,z){ ((z-0.5)^2-1/12)*((x-0.5)^2-1/12)/4 -((abs(x-z)-0.5)^4 -0.5*(abs(x-z)-0.5)^2 +7/240)/24 } spl.X<-function(x,xk){ q<-length(xk)+2 n<-length(x) X<-matrix(1,n,q) X[,2]<-x X[,3:q]<-outer(x,xk,FUN=rk) X } X <- spl.X(BL$Depth, QD[2:10]) print(head(X), digits=2) M6 <- lm(Sources ~ X -1, data = BL) summary(M6) #Figure 3.10 plot(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$Sources, xlab = "Scaled depth", ylab = "Sources", cex.lab = 1.5, cex = 0.7, pch = 16, col = grey(0.5)) for (i in 1:11){ abline(v = QD[i], lty = 2) } MD <- data.frame(Depth = seq(QD[1], QD[11], length =100)) Xp <- spl.X(MD$Depth, QD[2:10]) lines(MD$Depth, Xp %*% coef(M6), lwd = 5) #End of Figure 3.10 ##################################################### #Section 3.7 The number of knots #Fitting smoothers for a quadratic spline regression model #using different number of knots probs1 <- seq(0, 1, length = 3) QD1 <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs1) probs3 <- seq(0, 1, length = 5) QD3 <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs3) probs5 <- seq(0, 1, length = 5) QD5 <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs3) probs7 <- seq(0, 1, length = 7) QD7 <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs7) probs9 <- seq(0, 1, length = 9) QD9 <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs9) probs11 <- seq(0, 1, length = 11) QD11 <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs11) probs13 <- seq(0, 1, length = 12) QD13 <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs13) probs15 <- seq(0, 1, length = 15) QD15 <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs15) probs17 <- seq(0, 1, length = 17) QD17 <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs17) probs19 <- seq(0, 1, length = 19) QD19 <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs19) probs21 <- seq(0, 1, length = 21) QD21 <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs21) probs31 <- seq(0, 1, length = 31) QD31 <- quantile(BL$Depth, probs31) M5.1 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, QD1[2]), data = BL) M5.3 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, QD3[2]) + rhs2(Depth, QD3[3]) + rhs2(Depth, QD3[4]), data = BL) M5.5 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, QD5[2]) + rhs2(Depth, QD5[3]) + rhs2(Depth, QD5[4]) + rhs2(Depth, QD5[5]), data = BL) M5.7 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, QD7[2]) + rhs2(Depth, QD7[3]) + rhs2(Depth, QD7[4]) + rhs2(Depth, QD7[5]) + rhs2(Depth, QD7[6]), data = BL) M5.9 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, QD9[2]) + rhs2(Depth, QD9[3]) + rhs2(Depth, QD9[4]) + rhs2(Depth, QD9[5]) + rhs2(Depth, QD9[6]) + rhs2(Depth, QD9[7]), data = BL) M5.11 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, QD11[2]) + rhs2(Depth, QD11[3]) + rhs2(Depth, QD11[4]) + rhs2(Depth, QD11[5]) + rhs2(Depth, QD11[6]) + rhs2(Depth, QD11[7]) + rhs2(Depth, QD11[8]), data = BL) M5.13 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, QD13[2]) + rhs2(Depth, QD13[3]) + rhs2(Depth, QD13[4]) + rhs2(Depth, QD13[5]) + rhs2(Depth, QD13[6]) + rhs2(Depth, QD13[7]) + rhs2(Depth, QD13[8]) + rhs2(Depth, QD13[9]) + rhs2(Depth, QD13[10]) + rhs2(Depth, QD13[11]) + rhs2(Depth, QD13[12]), data = BL) M5.15 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[2]) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[3]) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[4]) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[5]) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[6]) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[7]) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[8]) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[9]) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[10]) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[11]) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[12]) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[13]) + rhs2(Depth, QD15[14]), data = BL) M5.17 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[2]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[3]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[4]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[5]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[6]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[7]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[8]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[9]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[10]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[11]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[12]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[13]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[14]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[15]) + rhs2(Depth, QD17[16]), data = BL) M5.19 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[2]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[3]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[4]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[5]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[6]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[7]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[8]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[9]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[10]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[11]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[12]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[13]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[14]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[15]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[16]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[17]) + rhs2(Depth, QD19[18]), data = BL) M5.31 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[2]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[3]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[4]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[5]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[6]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[7]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[8]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[9]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[10]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[11]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[12]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[13]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[14]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[15]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[16]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[17]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[18]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[19]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[20]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[21]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[22]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[23]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[24]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[25]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[26]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[27]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[28]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[29]) + rhs2(Depth, QD31[30]), data = BL) P5.1 <- predict(M5.1, newdata = MD) P5.3 <- predict(M5.3, newdata = MD) P5.5 <- predict(M5.5, newdata = MD) P5.7 <- predict(M5.7, newdata = MD) P5.9 <- predict(M5.9, newdata = MD) P5.11 <- predict(M5.11, newdata = MD) P5.13 <- predict(M5.13, newdata = MD) P5.15 <- predict(M5.15, newdata = MD) P5.17 <- predict(M5.17, newdata = MD) P5.19 <- predict(M5.19, newdata = MD) P5.31 <- predict(M5.31, newdata = MD) AllP <- c(P5.1, P5.3, P5.5, P5.7, P5.9, P5.11, P5.13, P5.15, P5.17, P5.19, P5.31) AllD <- rep(MD$Depth, 11) AllID <- rep(c("1 inner knot", "3 inner knots", "5 inner knots", "7 inner knots", "9 inner knots", "11 inner knots", "13 inner knots", "15 inner knots", "17 inner knots", "19 inner knots", "31 inner knots"), each = length(P5.3)) AllID2 <- factor(AllID, levels = c("1 inner knot", "3 inner knots", "5 inner knots", "7 inner knots", "9 inner knots", "11 inner knots", "13 inner knots", "15 inner knots", "17 inner knots", "19 inner knots", "31 inner knots")) #Figure 3.11 xyplot(AllP ~ AllD | AllID2, col = 1, type = "l", lwd = 3, xlab = list(label = "Depth", cex = 1.5), ylab = list(label = "Sources", cex = 1.5), strip = strip.custom(bg = 'white', par.strip.text = list(cex = 1.2)), ) ################################################################## #Section 3.8 Penalized quadratic spline regression M5 <- lm(Sources ~ Depth + I(Depth^2) + rhs2(Depth, 0.159) + rhs2(Depth, 0.220) + rhs2(Depth, 0.281) + rhs2(Depth, 0.344) + rhs2(Depth, 0.410) + rhs2(Depth, 0.490) + rhs2(Depth, 0.567) + rhs2(Depth, 0.664) + rhs2(Depth, 0.787), data = BL) X <- model.matrix(M5) coef(M5) head(X) K <- 9 D <- diag(rep(1, 3 + K)) D[1,1]<-D[2,2]<-D[3,3] <-0 #Figure 3.12 plot(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$Sources, xlab = "Scaled depth", ylab ="Sources", cex.lab = 1.5, cex = 0.7, pch = 16, col = grey(0.5)) MyLambdas <- c(0, 1,10000) for (lambda in MyLambdas){ #lambda <- 0.01 Beta.lambda <- solve(t(X) %*% X + lambda^2 * D) %*%t(X) %*% BL$Sources print(Beta.lambda) MyDepth <- seq(0.1, 1, length =100) XPred <- model.matrix(~ 1 + MyDepth + I(MyDepth^2)+ rhs2(MyDepth, 0.159) + rhs2(MyDepth, 0.220) + rhs2(MyDepth, 0.281) + rhs2(MyDepth, 0.344) + rhs2(MyDepth, 0.410) + rhs2(MyDepth, 0.490) + rhs2(MyDepth, 0.567) + rhs2(MyDepth, 0.664) + rhs2(MyDepth, 0.787) ) Yhat <- XPred %*% as.vector(Beta.lambda) lines(MyDepth, Yhat, lwd = 5) } #################################################################### #Section 3.10 Show a Cubic smoothing spling in action #Matrix stuff X <- spl.X(BL$Depth, QD[2:10]) #Wood 2006: Gives S spl.S <- function(xk){ q <- length(xk) + 2 S <- matrix(0, nrow = q, ncol = q) S[3:q, 3:q] <- outer(xk, xk, FUN = rk) S } #Penalty matrix: D <- spl.S(QD[2:10]) #Cross-validation K <- 25 OCV <- vector(length = K) Lambda <- seq(0, 0.001, length = K) N <- nrow(BL) for (j in 1:K){ lambda <- Lambda[j] EP<- vector (length= N) for (i in 1:N){ #Apply the GAM Xi <- X[-i,] Betai <- solve(t(Xi) %*% Xi +lambda * D)%*% t(Xi)%*% BL$Sources [-i] Yi <- X[i,] %*% Betai EP[i] <- BL$Sources[i] - Yi } OCV[j] <- sum(EP^2)/N } #Figure 3.14 plot(x = Lambda, y = OCV, type = "l", xlab = "lambda", ylab = "OCV") #For a large data set we can use for (j in 1:K){ lambda <- Lambda[j] S <- X %*% solve(t(X) %*% X + lambda * D) %*%t(X) Sii <- diag(S) #Beta <- solve(t(X) %*% X + lambda * D) %*%t(X) %*% BL$Sources Yfit <- S %*% BL$Sources E <- BL$Sources - Yfit OCV[j] <- (1/N) * sum(( E/(1-Sii))^2 ) } #Show smoother lambda <- 2.083333e-04 Beta <- solve(t(X) %*% X + lambda * D) %*%t(X) %*% BL$Sources MD <- data.frame(Depth = seq(QD[1], QD[11], length =100)) Xp <- spl.X(MD$Depth, QD[2:10]) fhat <- Xp %*% Beta #Figure 3.15 plot(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$Sources, xlab = "Scaled depth", ylab ="Sources", cex.lab = 1.5, cex = 0.7, pch = 16, col = grey(0.5)) lines(x = MD$Depth, y =fhat, lwd = 5) ######################################################### #section 3.12 Degrees of freedom of a smoother #Make a picture that visualises the relationship #between lambda and degrees of freedom #Use a cubic smoothing spline X <- spl.X(BL$Depth, QD[2:10]) D <- spl.S(QD[2:10]) #Penalty matrix lambda <- 2.083333e-04 S.lambda <- X %*% solve(t(X) %*% X + lambda * D) %*%t(X) df1 <- sum(diag(S.lambda)) df1 #df.Error <- nrow(BL) - sum(diag( 2 * S.lambda - S.lambda %*% t(S.lambda))) #df3 <- sum(diag(S.lambda %*% t(S.lambda))) #c(df1, df.Error, df3, nrow(BL)) ########### df <- vector(length = 100) Lambda <- seq(0,5, length = 100) for (i in 1:100){ lambda <- Lambda[i] S.lambda <- X %*% solve(t(X) %*% X + lambda * D) %*%t(X) df[i] <- sum(diag(S.lambda)) } #Figure 3.16 plot(x = Lambda, y = df, type = "l", xlab = "lambda", ylab = "Effective degrees of freedom") ######################################################### #Section 3.14 Confidence intervals. #Sketch smoother with +/- 2 * SE lambda <- 2.083333e-04 Beta <- solve(t(X) %*% X + lambda * D) %*%t(X) %*% BL$Sources Xp <- spl.X(MD$Depth, QD[2:10]) yfit <- Xp %*% Beta S.lambda <- X %*% solve(t(X) %*% X + lambda * D) %*%t(X) df.Error <- nrow(BL) - sum(diag( 2 * S.lambda - S.lambda %*% t(S.lambda))) sigma2 <- sum((BL$Sources - X %*% Beta)^2) / (df.Error) sigma <- sqrt(sigma2) sigma Sp.lambda <- Xp %*% solve(t(Xp) %*% Xp + lambda * D) %*%t(Xp) CovPredY <- sigma2 * Sp.lambda%*% t(Sp.lambda) SEPredY <- sqrt(diag(CovPredY)) #Figure 3.17 par(mfrow = c(1,1), mar = c(5,5,3,3)) plot(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$Sources, xlab = "Scaled depth", ylab ="Sources", cex.lab = 1.5, cex = 0.7, pch = 16, col = grey(0.5)) lines(x = MD$Depth, y = yfit, lwd = 3) lines(x = MD$Depth, y = yfit + 2 * SEPredY, lwd = 5) lines(x = MD$Depth, y = yfit - 2 * SEPredY, lwd = 5) cbind(yfit - 2 * SEPredY,yfit, yfit + 2 * SEPredY) ########################################################### #Section 3.15 using the function gam in mgcv G1 <- gam(Sources ~ s(Depth), data = BL) summary(G1) plot(G1) #Figure 3.18 plot(G1, shift = 16.7455, ylim = c(-10,100), lwd =3, rug = FALSE, cex.lab = 1.5) points(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$Sources, cex = 0.5, pch = 16, col = grey(0.5)) #Penalized regression regression spline gam(Sources ~ s(Depth), data = BL) gam(Sources ~ s(Depth,fx = TRUE,k = 5), data = BL) G2 <- gam(Sources ~ s(Depth, bs = "cr"), data = BL) G2A <- gam(Sources ~ s(Depth, bs = "cr", k =20), data = BL) G2B <- gam(Sources ~ s(Depth, bs = "cr", k =7,fx = TRUE), data = BL) G2C <- gam(Sources ~ s(Depth, bs = "cr", k =20), gamma = 1.4, data = BL) fitted(G1) coefficients(G1) X <- predict(G1,type = "lpmatrix") mu <- X %*% coef(G1) X%*% G1$Vp %*% t(X) ############################################################ #Section 3.16 Danger of using Gam E1 <- resid(G1) F1 <- fitted(G1) #Figure 3.19 plot(x = F1, y = E1, cex = 0.7, pch = 16, xlab = "Fitted values", ylab = "Residuals",cex.lab = 1.5) abline(h = 0, lty = 2) #Figure 3.20 boxplot(E1 ~ Station, data = BL, xlab = "Station", ylab = "Residuals") abline(h = 0, lty = 2) #Figure 3.21 xyplot(E1 ~ Depth | factor(Station), data = BL, xlab = list(label = "Depth", cex = 1.5), ylab = list(label = "Residuals", cex = 1.5), strip = strip.custom(bg = 'white', par.strip.text = list(cex = 1.2)), panel = function(x,y){ panel.points(x, y, pch = 16, cex = 0.7, col = 1) panel.abline(h = 0, lty = 2) } ) #Figure 3.22 xyplot(Sources ~ Depth | factor(Eddy), groups = factor(Station), type = "l", col = 1, pch = 16, data = BL, xlab = list(label = "Depth", cex = 1.5), ylab = list(label = "Sources", cex = 1.5)) #Compare 2 models using AIC G3 <- gam(Sources ~ s(Depth) + factor(Station), data = BL) G4 <- gam(Sources ~ s(Depth, by = factor(Eddy)) + factor(Station), data = BL) AIC(G3, G4) #Small differences due to different mgcv versions #Figure 3.23 par(mfrow = c(1,2)) plot(G4) ########################################################## #Section 3.17 GAM with multiple smoothers #Figure 3.24 par(mfrow = c(1,2), mar = c(5,5,3,3)) plot(x = BL$Depth, y = BL$flcugl, xlab = "Depth", ylab = "flcugl", cex.lab = 1.5) plot(x = BL$flcugl, y = BL$Sources, xlab = "flcugl", ylab = "Sources", cex.lab = 1.5) #Cubic smoothing splines BL2 <- BL[BL$flcugl < 0.03, ] G5 <- gam(Sources ~ s(Depth, bs = "cr") + s(flcugl, bs = "cr") + factor(Station), data = BL2) #Figure 3.25 par(mfrow = c(1,2)) plot(G5) summary(G5) #Compare all models using AIC G6 <- gam(Sources ~ s(Depth, bs = "cr"), data = BL2) G7 <- gam(Sources ~ factor(Station) + s(Depth, by = factor(Eddy), bs = "cr") + s(flcugl, bs = "cr"), data = BL2) G8 <- gam(Sources ~ factor(Station) + s(Depth, by = factor(Eddy)) + s(flcugl, by = factor(Eddy), bs = "cr"), data = BL2) G9 <- gam(Sources ~ factor(Station) + s(Depth, by = factor(Eddy)) + flcugl, data = BL2) G10 <- gam(Sources ~ factor(Station) + s(Depth, by = factor(Eddy)) + flcugl * factor(Eddy), data = BL2) G11 <- gam(Sources ~ factor(Station) + te(Depth, flcugl), data = BL2) G12 <- gam(Sources ~ factor(Station) + te(Depth, flcugl, by = Eddy), data = BL2) AIC(G5, G6, G7, G8, G9, G10, G11, G12) #Figure 3.26 par(mfrow = c(2,2)) plot(G8, scale = FALSE) ######### End of code###################